The fundamental factors influencing the production of fine wine.
The grape is one of the earliest domesticated fruit crops and it has been widely cultivated and prized for its fruit and wine for thousands of years. The archaeological record suggests that cultivation of the domesticated grape began 6,000–8,000 years ago in the Near East . Vines were highly developed by the Greeks and Romans. Today there are nearly 200 cultivated varieties. Modern cultivars have all been derived from two main species, the European (Mediterranean) Vitis vinifera (a tight-skin grape with wine-like flavour) and the North American Vitis labrusca (a slip-skin grape with Concord-type flavour). Since grapes were domesticated, plant breeders and wine growers have essentially been reusing the same varieties over and over, planting cloned vines, in an attempt to preserve their flavour.
You have all heard the statement that wine production begins in the vineyard, and this is certainly very true. There are a lot of factors that influence grape composition, which in turn influences wine composition and, therefore, ultimately perceived quality. You have also doubtless heard the statement that good wine cannot be made from bad grapes, which is also true. The winemaker is limited in the scope and magnitude of changes that can be made to the chemical composition of juice, must and wine. If the composition of the grapes at harvest is not optimal, the finished wine will reflect that lack of optimization. Grape composition is therefore very dependent upon viticulture practices. Winemakers need to be fully engaged in vineyard operations, and control those practices that will impact the ultimate chemical composition of the wine.
In order to appreciate wine, it is important to understand the characteristics of the grapes. Wine characteristics vary greatly depending on the grape. Although Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Shiraz are all red grapes, individually their personalities are quite diverse. Even when grown in different appellations and fermented using different techniques, the character of wine always displays certain qualities, which are inherent in the grape’s personality. The interdependent factors that affect wine flavour are the variety or varieties of grape used, the location where the grapes are grown (appellation), the treatment of those vineyards and skills of the winegrower and the equipment and techniques used by the winemaker, as well as his skills in applying them. There are, therefore, at least four fundamental factors that give wine its characteristics:
1. Soil
2. Grape Variety
3. Weather
4. Winemaking Technique
1. The Soil
The effect of soil on wine character and style is probably one of the most widely debated topics in viticulture. Soil has a definite effect on the quality of wines under the same climatic conditions, but the effect is not consistent over seasons, indicating an inter-relationship between soil and climate. Although soil characteristics such as colour, temperature and chemical composition definitely play a role in the effect of soil on the growth pattern of the vine and, consequently, wine character and quality, the most convincing indications are that the main effect of soil type is through its physical properties and, more specifically, through the regulation of the water supply to the grapevine. This must be considered in conjunction with climate. Deep soils without chemical or physical restraints for root development will promote a well-developed root system with a high degree of buffering against climatic extremes and contribute to constancy of the product across vintages, irrespective of the seasonal climate – the hallmark of a good terroir.
But, not only does soil temper climatic extremes (such as drought and high temperatures). Climate and climate-dependant factors are some of the most important parameters affecting the formation of soil. Rich soils where so many crops thrive are not usually the best locations for growing wine grapes. The grapevine seems to prefer gravel to earth, and grows well in rocky hillsides where no other crops will. It thrives when forced to dig deep for its water, sometimes as much as 3m down. The French wine producers believe strongly in the importance of the geographical region of origin. Soil, they believe, is an essential part of terroir, and helps to give wine its distinctive character.
The best vineyard site is not necessarily the place with the best view, or the most expensive land, or the one closest to the local tavern. It’s the one that has the best combination of an infinite set of variables that intertwine to produce a great bottle of wine. When we think of ideal vineyard soils, we must analyze them in their full context – physical, chemical and biological properties. The correct balance of these constituent parts is sought to best accommodate the plant and climate as well as the applied viticulture. Other considerations, such as slope, aspect, and elevation have indirect effects on soil relative to its impact on vine physiology. What is underfoot is an incredibly complex system that we sense is critical to wine quality, yet we don’t fully understand how or why.
The only sure way to truly find out the ideal vineyard soil is to plant vines and make wine. Short of that, use every tool at your disposal to predict the performance of your soil. You should first determine your wine making goals. If the best possible wine is the main objective, then you are looking for a well drained soil of moderate fertility and adequate depth that will grow a small to medium sized vine.
While a balanced vine is always the viticulture goal, it is commonly recognized that smaller vines on higher density spacing tend to produce the best grapes. If the goal is high production and moderate quality, then deep, rich, fertile soils are appropriate. Soil vigour will impact many other pre-plant decisions such as variety, clone and rootstock selection, vine spacing, trellis system, irrigation and more – all of these will determine the costs of vineyard development.
Distinct soil groups show different wine organoleptic (sensory properties of a product, involving taste, colour, odour and feel) profiles. Soil quality is considered of paramount importance in the production of fine wines, therefore having located the right piece of “terroir”, skilled vineyard management is then paramount. There can be no denying that 90% of the quality of any wine is made in the vineyard. Quite simply, great grapes make great wine. In order to achieve the desired flavour profiles of each grape variety, yields are kept low, irrigation is minimal and vineyards are managed in an environmentally sustainable manner with minimum use of chemicals.
2. Grape Variety
Many attributes distinguish each grape variety from the next. The attributes of grape varieties fall into two categories: personality traits and performance factors. Personality traits are the characteristics of the fruit itself – its flavours, for example. Performance factors refer to how the grapevine grows, how its fruit ripens, and how quickly it ripens. Skin colour is the most fundamental distinction among grape varieties. Every grape is considered either a white or a red variety, according to the colour of its skin when the grapes are ripe. Individual grape varieties also differ in other ways such as aromatic compounds, acidity levels, thickness of skin and size of the individual grapes, etc.
Some grapes (like Muscat ) contribute floral aromas and flavours to their wine, for example, while other grapes contribute herbaceous notes (as Sauvignon Blanc does) or a fruity character. Some grapes have very neutral aromas and flavours and, therefore, make fairly neutral wines. Other grapes are naturally disposed to higher acid levels, which influences the wine made from those grapes. Black grapes with thick skins naturally have more tannin than grapes with thin skins; ditto for small-berried varieties compared to large-berried varieties, because their skin-to-juice ratio is higher. More tannin in the grapes translates into a firmer, more tannic red wine. The composite personality traits of any grape variety are fairly evident in wines made from that grape. A Cabernet Sauvignon wine is almost always more tannic and slightly lower in alcohol than a comparable Merlot wine, for example, because that’s the nature of those two grapes.
The performance factors that distinguish grape varieties are vitally important to the grape grower, because those factors determine how easy or challenging it will be for him to cultivate a specific variety in his vineyard – if he can even grow it at all. The issues include, among others, how much time a variety typically needs to ripen its grapes and how dense and how compact the grape berries are.
3. Weather
Soil is the most constant factor in wine-making; the mineral composition of a vineyard barely changes in 100 years. However the weather in a given growing season, though somewhat predictable (based on historical trends), is the reason that we have good years and bad years for wine.
Temperature is probably one of the most important parameters affecting the grapevine, as it has an effect on almost every aspect of the vine’s functioning. High temperatures will result in slightly higher sugar contents, up to a temperature threshold. The effect of night temperatures on anthocyanin synthesis appears to be partially dependent on the contrast between day and night temperatures, with day temperatures playing the preponderant role. Relative humidity has an effect on the photo-synthetic rate when the soil’s water supply is limited and it has been shown that low relative humidity values and high temperatures result in high berry pH values, as well as reducing the growth and yield per unit of water transpired. High relative humidity values can, however, increase disease incidence.
Wind has both positive and negative effects on viticulture. Strong winds in spring and early summer can injure new growth and young bunches, as well as reducing fruit set. Air circulation, however, prevents high relative humidity and excessively high temperatures from developing in vine canopies. In areas where the soil has a potential for high vigour, strong winds may be conducive to quality by limiting the vegetative growth of the vine. For the best grapes, early springtime should remain cool. An early heat wave may cause leaf buds to develop prematurely. Spring is one of the only times that plentiful rain is welcome; it becomes desirable as the growing season progresses.
After the vines have been pollinated, the grapes need about three months to ripen completely. An occasional gentle rain is welcome in early summer, as it helps to fill the grapes with liquid to plump them up to the proper size. A drought year would result in small grapes with a high skin-to-pulp ratio. Having more grape skin will produce a more tannic, intensely flavoured wine. As the grapes mature, a dry and cool breeze will help to keep the grapes free of disease and to slow the ripening process. Grapes that ripen too quickly tend to develop less flavour.
The months of August and September are crucial. Dry and warm weather is essential, and a cold and rainy September can ruin a previously perfect growing season.
Cool weather is desirable during the fermenting period. The cool breezes around the tanks help to prolong the fermenting process and prevent overheating. The climate of Mediterranean climate with cool wet winters and hot dry summers is considered one of the most advantageous for a good vintage. Within the region there is considerable variation of climate, with coastal winter minimum temperatures being several degrees warmer than temperatures recorded inland. Altitude is also a major factor on the influence of climate.
4. Winemaking Techniques
Winemaking, or vinification, is the process of wine production, from the selection of grapes to the bottling of finished wine. Grapes used for wine production must be healthy and without defects, due to bacterial and/or fungal infections and winemaking processes should be conducted immediately after harvesting to prevent wine defects with, if possible, whole grapes. If grapes are broken during the harvest and/or transportation to the winery, defects or problems can arise due to the activity of acetic and/or lactic bacteria and their production of acetic and lactic acid.
High quality wines are produced by a lengthy process. Many steps are involved, and each step makes specific contributions to the quality of the finished product. Extended pre-fermentation skin contact and temperature during fermentation, selection of yeast, clarification techniques, stabilization and ageing, all make significant contributions to wine composition and quality, but the most important wine quality factor is the quality of the starting grapes. The winemaker will have to make many other choices, always balancing quality with cost, the use of stainless steel or oak barrels, new oak or old oak, how much pressed wine should be blended back into a wine made from free-run juice, etc.
Each and every vintage will yield grapes of unique character, and it is the task of the winemaker to make the best use of each harvest. The weather may cause a number of problems, so winemakers must use their skill and experience to overcome any such events.
Ideally, in making these and other choices, the winemaker brings out the best in the grapes, and from them crafts a wine that reflects the hereditary qualities of the grape variety and the unique composition of the soil, addressing any problems caused by the weather. The winemaking decision of using wild or ambient yeast in fermentation instead of cultured or laboratory produced yeast can be a reflection of terroir. The use of oak is a controversial element since some will advocate that its use is beneficial in bringing out the natural terroir characteristics, while others will argue that its use can mask the influences of the terroir.
Every factor is important in producing good wines. Viticulture is the most crucial as it determines the quality of the grapes. The goal of the producer should be to make the best wine he can from the land he’s on; the market will reflect the wine’s worth.
The reasons some grape varieties perform brilliantly in certain places (and make excellent wine as a result) are so complex that grape growers haven’t figured them all out yet. The amount of heat and cold, the amount of wind and rain (or lack of it), and the slant of the sun’s rays on a hillside of vines – all are among the factors affecting a vine’s performance. In any case, no two vineyards in the world have precisely the same combination of these factors. The fact that there are so many different styles available indicates the importance of the other three factors. Grape varieties have inherent characteristics that can be altered or reinterpreted by the soil, the weather and the winemaker’s techniques.
Wine News and Information
* Asia is taking a sizeable swig of the market share when it comes to wine. In fact, China – including Hong Kong – became the world’s largest consumer of Bordeaux wines last year, according to the Bordeaux Wine Council. The country imported 33.5 million bottles of Bordeaux alone worth a total of $375 million. China now imports more than $1 billion of wine each year, a four-fold increase from the amount it imported in 2004.
* The world of wine likes to publicize the traditional aspects of winemaking: the long history, the sustainable farming practices, the low-tech methods that have been unchanged for millennia. To a great extent, all that is true. Vineyard owners love to talk about unchanging traditions. But over the decades, the style of their wines has probably changed. Most dedicated winemakers have, in fact, marched away from the technological approach. However, a wine is the result of many hundreds of factors – including cellar temperature, the date the harvest begins, how quickly it proceeds, the time of day that the grapes are picked – that gives a lot of room for the producer to affect the outcome. In this way, winemaking is as subject to the fashions of the moment as art.
At no time is this more obvious than at a vertical tasting of wine over several years and vintages. In a recent tasting of nearly the entire 30-year history of well-known brands of Cabernet Sauvignon, it was illustrated that even with the restrictions of place, philosophy, and even winemaking teams, the wines over the decades were subtly influenced by whatever was fashionable at the time. In the 1980s, wines were produced from grapes that were picked early at predefined sugar content and also acidified to reach what was considered a proper pH balance. As these wines age, however, they do become a little too crisp and brittle, especially in years when the weather was slightly cooler. In the 1990s, the wines became riper, picked a little later, still not becoming ponderously high in alcohol, but they were not acidified as much or at all. The key concept in the 1990s was that the meaning of “ripeness” was redefined, with the bar set higher than ever before. Cabernet, which can have herbal notes when picked in cooler years, was suddenly considered inferior if there was even a hint of green herb: chervil, oregano, thyme, or the dreaded green bell pepper. These wines were riper and richer, yet also balanced. Wines from the 1990s were softer, more viscous, and more concentrated. Finally, in the last 10 years, wineries looked for more liveliness in the wine, so they tended to pick a little earlier and watch the natural acidity levels at harvest. Often now it is done more by taste than by the laboratory. The more recent wines are excellent, nearly as ripe as the wines from the 1990s but with a little more nuance and freshness. The retrospective tasting showed the incredible persistence of terroir and the consistent high quality of the wines throughout the years. From the very beginning to the present day, all the wines show complexity, longevity and classical proportions, regardless of the trends that may have affected winemaking decisions along the way.
Monolithos Monthly News
* The never-ending job of caring for the vineyard continues in June. The vineyards are inspected, weeded, and sprayed, as weeds constantly compete with the grapevines for nutrients. The vines are occasionally trimmed to encourage fruit production and increase airflow to the clusters, allowing the wind to cool the fruit in the evening hours, an important part of maintaining acidity in the vineyard. The increased airflow could also keep certain diseases in check.
* The application for building permission for the new Monolithos Winery was submitted to the Limassol District Administration the second week in May. This government department acts on behalf of the local authorities of the Pachna community and is responsible for the examination of applications for the issue of building permits. The application included architect’s drawings, static calculations and plans, electrical, mechanical and sewerage plans and a number of supporting documents.
* The Winery building has been designed to meet a number of goals. It takes advantage of hillside slopes to facilitate a three-level gravity flow operation. The basement or bottom level accommodates the barrel storage, bottling facility, finished goods storage and dispatch area. The next or middle level caters for the grape receiving area, crush and press operations, fermentation and blending tanks, stabilisation, cooling and control equipment. It also provides the main visitors entrance to the winery through a small museum and exhibition room. The upper floor is dominated by the wine tasting room, administration offices and laboratory facilities. The tasting room offers a panoramic view of the vine growing villages in the area (Krasochoria). A lift and staircases connect internally all three levels.
* Currently, all the 2009 wines are available for tasting and purchasing. If at any time you are passing near the village of Pachna and wish to visit the winery or purchase any of our products, Martin Wood will be pleased to meet and assist you at his “Fig Tree Villa” in Pachna, so do not hesitate to phone him at 25-816212 or 99-165995.
